Attribution and Social Psychology

Attribution and Social Psychology More in Theories Social Psychology Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology In social psychology, attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors. In real life, attribution is something we all do every day, usually without any awareness of the underlying processes and biases that lead to our inferences. For example, over the course of a typical day, you probably make numerous attributions about your own behavior as well as that of the people around you. When you get a poor grade on a quiz, you might blame the teacher for not adequately explaining the material, completely dismissing the fact that you didnt study. When a classmate gets a great grade on the same quiz, you might attribute his good performance to luck, neglecting the fact that he has excellent study habits. Why do we make internal attributions for some things while making external attributions for others? Part of this has to do with the type of attribution we are likely to use in a particular situation. Cognitive biases often play major roles as well. What impact do attributions for behavior really have on your life? The attributions you make each and every day has an important influence on your feelings as well as how you think and relate to other people. Types   Interpersonal Attribution: When telling a story to a group of friends or acquaintances, you are likely to tell the story in a way that places you in the best possible light.Predictive Attribution: We also tend to attribute things in ways that allow us to make future predictions. If your car was vandalized, you might attribute the crime to the fact that you parked in a particular parking garage. As a result, you will avoid that parking garage in the future in order to avoid further vandalism.Explanatory Attribution: We use explanatory attributions to help us make sense of the world around us. Some people have an optimistic explanatory style, while others tend to be more pessimistic. People with an optimistic style attribute positive events to stable, internal and global causes and negative events to unstable, external and specific causes. Those with a pessimistic style attribute negative events to internal, stable and global causes and positive events to external, stable and specific causes. Theories   Psychologists have also introduced a number of different theories to help further understand how the attribution process works. Heiders Common Sense Theory In his 1958 book The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, Fritz Heider suggested that people observe others, analyze their behavior, and come up with their own common-sense explanations for such actions.?? Heider groups these explanations into either external attributions or internal attributions. External attributions are those that are blamed on situational forces, while internal attributions are blamed on individual characteristics and traits. Correspondent Inference Theory In 1965, Edward Jones and Keith Davis suggested that people make inferences about others in cases where actions are intentional rather than accidental.?? When people see others acting in certain ways, they look for a correspondence between the persons motives and his or her behaviors. The inferences people then make are based on the degree of choice, the expectedness of the behavior, and the effects of that behavior. Biases and Errors Self-Serving Bias Think about the last time you received a good grade on a psychology exam. Chances are that you attributed your success to internal factors. I did well because I am smart or I did well because I studied and was well-prepared are two common explanations you might use to justify your test performance. What happens when you receive a poor grade, though? Social psychologists have found that in this situation, you are more likely to attribute your failure to external forces. I failed because the teacher included trick questions or The classroom was so hot that I couldnt concentrate are examples of excuses a student might come up with to explain their poor performance. Notice that both of these explanations lay the blame on outside forces rather than accepting personal responsibility. Psychologists refer to this phenomenon as the self-serving bias. So why are we more likely to attribute our success to our personal characteristics and blame outside variables for our failures? Researchers believe that blaming external factors for failures and disappointments helps protect self-esteem.?? The Fundamental Attribution Error When it comes to other people, we tend to attribute causes to internal factors such as personality characteristics and ignore or minimize external variables. This phenomenon tends to be very widespread, particularly among individualistic cultures. Psychologists refer to this tendency as the fundamental attribution error; even though situational variables are very likely present, we automatically attribute the cause to internal characteristics. The fundamental attribution error explains why people often blame other people for things over which they usually have no control. The term blaming the victim is often used by social psychologists to describe a phenomenon in which people blame innocent victims of crimes for their misfortune. In such cases, people may accuse the victim of failing to protect themselves from the event by behaving in a certain manner or not taking specific precautionary steps to avoid or prevent the event. Examples of this include accusing rape victims, domestic violence survivors and kidnap victims of behaving in a manner that somehow provoked their attackers. Researchers suggest that hindsight bias causes people to mistakenly believe that victims should have been able to predict future events and therefore take steps to avoid them.?? The Actor-Observer Bias Interestingly, when it comes to explaining our own behavior, we tend to have the opposite bias of the fundamental attribution error. When something happens, we are more likely to blame external forces than our personal characteristics. In psychology, this tendency is known as the actor-observer bias. How can we explain this tendency? One possible reason is that we simply have more information about our own situation than we do about other peoples. When it comes to explaining your own actions, you have more information about yourself and the situational variables at play. When youre trying to explain another persons behavior, you are at a bit of a disadvantage; you only have the information that is readily observable. Not surprisingly, people are less likely to fall victim to the actor-observer discrepancy with people that they know very well. Because you know more about the personality and behavior of people youre close too, you are better able to take their point of view and more likely to be aware of possible situational causes for their behaviors.

College Scholarship Essay - Part 1 - When I Review Paragraph Structure

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Google Scholarship Essay Samples - What Is It?

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Essay Topics - How to Use Essay Topics Effectively

Essay Topics - How to Use Essay Topics EffectivelyThere are many different essay topics that you can choose from. This is just one of the many ways that you can get them right. However, you have to know that some topics require a bit more thought than others. Here are some of the most common topics for your essay writing.Career choices: This is one of the easiest topic to write about. This can be a choice made by someone in the past or someone in the present. Either way, this should relate to the person's thoughts and opinions on what they might want to do with their life. One thing that many people are not too happy about though is discussing these things too much. For this reason, try to refrain from doing so as it might seem off putting to some readers.Fashion: People enjoy reading about what other people are wearing. This is a perfect example of a topic that can be very subjective. However, if you take all of the elements into consideration then you will be able to determine what the best suits your tastes.Religion: There are many different people who enjoy having discussions about religion. What people find helpful and appealing depends on what they believe. For this reason, there are many topics out there that are a bit off putting to a lot of people.Philosophy: This can be a very good idea for a paper to have. This is something that can be very personal to you. It can help you think about what you think about your current situation.Writing an essay can be easy or hard. The thing is that a lot of people are not too happy with this because they feel that it takes too much time. However, this is something that can make or break a whole lot of students. If you are looking for ways to make essay writing easier then try using these essay topics.For those students who would like to apply to college but don't have the time to go through with it, consider using the appropriate topics to help with the writing. You can use these topics to help with the format. They will help you eliminate some of the typical writing mistakes.When you are looking for essay topics, then consider getting some of the ones that are already used by a lot of students. For this reason, you will not have to worry about being unique when writing your paper. Once you do this, you will begin to get some good feedback about how to improve on the paper and what kinds of essay topics work best for you.